Multinational military gathering in Mongolia trains as UN peacekeepers www.stripes.com

An annual peacekeeping drill that brings American and other multinational troops close to China and Russia wraps up Friday near Mongolia’s capital. Khaan Quest kicked off June 20 as part of the United Nations Global Peace Operations Initiative, a program that provides pre-deployment training to nations preparing to support U.N. peacekeeping missions. “What began as a bilateral training event between the Mongolian Armed Forces and U.S. Marine Forces Pacific has grown into the premier peacekeeping exercise in the Pacific region,” U.S. Ambassador to Mongolia Richard Buangan said at the drill’s opening ceremony, according to remarks posted on the U.S. Embassy’s website. The exercise takes place at the Five Hills Training Area near Ulaanbaatar, about 200 miles south of Mongolia’s border with Russia and less than 200 miles north of the border with China. Mongolia has close ties to its much larger neighbors, which are its primary sources of energy and many other products. Mongolia abstained on a U.N. General Assembly vote condemning Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022. However, the landlocked democracy of 3.4 million people has expanded ties to other nations in the region such as Japan and South Korea, which also sent troops to Khaan Quest. Australia, Canada, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Turkey, the United Kingdom, Vietnam and the Philippines are also participating. The last significant U.N. peacekeeping mission in the Pacific, in East Timor, ended in 2012. However, Pacific nations contribute peacekeepers to missions in Africa and the Middle East. The objective of the Khaan Quest, hosted by U.S. Army Pacific and the Mongolian military, is to develop a strategic partnership between the two countries, according to Army Sgt. Austin Riel, a spokesman for the Hawaii-based 8th Theater Sustainment Command. The Mongolians started the drill for their own troops in 2003, but it has been a multinational exercise for 20 years, he said by phone Monday from Mongolia. There are 149 American active duty, Reserve and National Guard soldiers training in Mongolia as part of a multinational contingent of 1,300 troops, Army Lt. Col. Andrea Matthiew, the exercise director, told Stars and Stripes during the phone call. “It’s not preparing troops for a particular peacekeeping mission, but it’s training units to U.N. standards for peacekeeping deployments,” Matthiew, the commander of the Hawaii-based 125th Finance Battalion, said of Khaan Quest. U.S. troops in Mongolia include Guard troops from Idaho, Nevada and Virginia, military police from Hawaii and Colorado, and medical personnel from Hawaii, according to the finance battalion’s senior enlisted leader, Command Sgt. Maj. Natasha Hunt, also on the phone from Mongolia. During Khaan Quest troops did a brigade-level command post exercise, then battalion-level counter drone and cordon-and-search training. At company level, they did counter roadside bomb and medical training, Matthiew said. The training included a multinational company with troops from different nations, with American personnel training Mongolians and Mongolians training Americans, she said. The U.S. soldiers are getting to know Mongolia, tasting local food and checking out horse riding, archery and falconry, Matthiew added. 

BY SETH ROBSON 
Seth Robson is a Tokyo-based reporter who has been with Stars and Stripes since 2003. He has been stationed in Japan, South Korea and Germany, with frequent assignments to Iraq, Afghanistan, Haiti, Australia and the Philippines. 

Mongolia, EU Hold 24th Joint Committee Meeting www.montsame.mn

Mongolia and the European Union held the 24th meeting of the Mongolia–EU Joint Committee in Brussels on June 29.

During the meeting, the participants exchanged views on recent political, social, and economic developments, as well as key international issues of mutual concern. They also reviewed the implementation of ongoing cooperation projects and programs and explored prospects for closer cooperation in infrastructure, renewable energy, trade and investment, education, and agriculture.

The two sides reaffirmed their commitment to strengthening cooperation under the Forest Partnership Memorandum of Understanding to enhance joint efforts in addressing climate change. They also discussed the upcoming 17th Conference of the Parties (COP17) to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), which will be held in Ulaanbaatar.

The committee reviewed the outcomes of the regular meetings of the Human Rights Dialogue and the Development Cooperation Working Group under the Joint Committee. The two sides also agreed to convene a meeting of the Trade and Investment Subcommittee in the near future.

A joint press statement was issued following the meeting. The meeting was co-chaired by Munkhtushig Lhanaajav, State Secretary of Mongolia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and Dominic Porter, Deputy Managing Director for Asia and the Pacific at the European External Action Service.

Ooluun.B

Mongolia Hosts Food, Agriculture, Light Industry Investment Forum www.montsame.mn

The Agri-Investment Forum 2026, jointly organized for the first time by Mongolia's Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Light Industry, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the Export International Trade Centre, opened on June 29.

The two-day forum brings together representatives of the government, private sector, international organizations, development partners, investors, financial institutions, and businesses to explore new investment opportunities and strengthen strategic partnerships in the food, agriculture, and light industry sector.

Opening the forum, Member of Parliament and Minister of Food, Agriculture, and Light Industry Iderbat Tsagaankhuu and Qingyun Diao, FAO Representative in Mongolia, highlighted the importance of international cooperation in enhancing the competitiveness of Mongolia's food and agriculture sector, attracting greater investment and promoting sustainable development.

In his opening remarks, Minister Iderbat said the sector accounted for 34% of Mongolia's GDP, 5% of export earnings, and 49% of national employment as of the end of 2025.

"These figures demonstrate the sector's strong potential to create jobs, expand value-added production and diversify exports," the minister said, while expressing appreciation to the embassies of France, Belgium, Bulgaria, Poland, Italy, Türkiye, the United States, Canada, and Russia, as well as Mongolia's development partners, for their continued support.

During the first session, State Secretary of the Ministry, Jambaltseren Tumur-Uya, presented Mongolia's strategic initiatives for agricultural development. Xiaoruo Jiang, Senior Policy Officer at the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, introduced Mongolia's agricultural development policies, investment environment, as well as investment opportunities under the Hand-in-Hand Initiative.

The forum also features presentations on 12 investment projects seeking strategic partnerships, financing, and market expansion. The projects cover value-added solutions in food production, wool and cashmere, leather processing, agroparks, renewable materials, innovation, and biotechnology.

Panel discussions and presentations focus on key topics including:

• Value chains in the food, agriculture, and light industry sectors;
• Supply chain finance and blended finance opportunities;
• International investors' expectations and investment criteria;
• Successful investment experiences in Mongolia;
• Export opportunities in the meat, dairy, wool, and cashmere industries;
• Lessons from Australia's agricultural experience;
• Climate-resilient food systems;
• Safe chemical management in supply chains; and
• Carbon market opportunities in the agricultural sector.

The forum also provides opportunities for business-to-business (B2B) meetings between investors and companies seeking investment, facilitating new business partnerships and investment negotiations.

In addition, an exhibition showcasing investment projects, products, and services, as well as the activities of the World Food Forum's National Youth Chapter in Mongolia, is open to the public.

Organizers said the forum aims to strengthen cooperation among the government, private sector, international organizations, and investors while promoting sustainable investment, expanding value-added production, and increasing exports in Mongolia's food, agriculture, and light industry sectors. It also seeks to identify new pathways for advancing investment, innovation, and international cooperation in these industries.

Ooluun.B

Korea and Mongolia to Hold 6th Round of CEPA Negotiations www.m.ajupress.com

Korea and Mongolia are set to engage in the sixth round of official negotiations for a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA). The two countries aim to reach an agreement through focused discussions on product concessions and origin criteria.

The Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy announced on June 30 that the sixth round of official CEPA negotiations will take place from July 1 to 3 in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Leading the delegations are Kwon Hye-jin, Director of the Trade Negotiation Bureau from Korea, and Batkhuyag Idresh, Deputy Minister of Economic Development from Mongolia.

Since the CEPA negotiations began in December 2023, five official rounds have brought the countries closer to agreements in key areas such as goods, services, investment, digital trade, and economic cooperation. This sixth round will focus intensively on core issues, including product concessions and origin criteria, to seek a resolution.

Product concessions are central to negotiations, determining how tariffs on goods from the other country will be reduced. Origin criteria establish which products will qualify for preferential tariff treatment under the agreement, directly impacting how businesses utilize the CEPA.

The two countries are viewed as having complementary industrial structures. Korea possesses strong manufacturing and technological capabilities, while Mongolia boasts rapid economic growth and abundant natural resources. If the Korea-Mongolia CEPA is finalized and implemented, it is expected to enhance trade and investment between the two nations, as well as strengthen supply chain and industrial cooperation across various sectors, including infrastructure and consumer goods.

In the context of global supply chain restructuring, Mongolia's rich mineral resources position it as a strategic partner for cooperation in key minerals, resource development, and market entry. Despite its landlocked geography, Mongolia offers connectivity between Central Asia and Northeast Asia, increasing potential for collaboration in logistics, infrastructure, consumer goods, construction, energy, and digital sectors.

Kwon Hye-jin stated, "We will focus on reaching substantial agreements on key areas such as product concessions and origin criteria during this negotiation. We will do our utmost to find a mutually beneficial balance in market opening between the two countries."

By Kim SeongSeo

A Partnership for the Next 50 Years, Mongolia and UNDP Together www.undp.org

Joint Op-Ed by the Chair of the Parliament of Mongolia, H.E. Byambatsogt Sandag and the UNDP Resident Representative in Mongolia, Matilda Dimovska.

As Mongolia marks 50 years of partnership with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), this is more than a commemoration of history. It is a moment of confidence and clarity, and a reminder that when the the value of multilateralism is questioned, Mongolia’s experience offers a compelling answer. 

At a time when global cooperation is both challenged and urgently needed, Mongolia stands as a clear example of how multilateralism works in practice. Development here has not been shaped in isolation. It has been built through partnership, anchored in shared values, national ownership, and mutual trust. 

Since 1976, Mongolia and UNDP have worked together across a wide range of priorities, from supporting nomadic livelihoods and environmental protection to strengthening public institutions, expanding employment and household incomes, improving people’s livelihoods, addressing climate change, and advancing digital transformation. 

Over five decades, this partnership has turned trust into action, and shared ambition into lasting progress. This anniversary is not only an opportunity to look back. It is a moment to define a more ambitious next chapter for Mongolia–UNDP cooperation. 

In an era of geopolitical tension, climate change, development inequalities, and economic uncertainty, the Mongolia–UNDP partnership offers an important lesson: multilateralism delivers when it is practical, nationally led, and focused on results that improve people’s lives. 

Fifty Years of Partnership: Building the Foundations of Progress 

Mongolia’s development has been shaped by the efforts, aspirations, and values of its people, by cooperation between the state and citizens, and by international partnerships built on mutual trust. UNDP has stood alongside Mongolia during some of the most defining stages of its development journey. Together, we have supported the transition to a market economy and democratic society, helped strengthen modern governance systems, and contributed to the institutions that continue to underpin the country’s long-term development. 

This partnership has gone far beyond projects. From strengthening the parliamentary system and advancing landmark legislation to supporting key institutions in disaster management, anti-corruption, and human rights, these contributions have helped form the backbone of Mongolia’s progress. UNDP has also supported the policies that matter for the future, including development planning, decentralization, sustainable natural resource management, and climate action. 

Yet the most enduring contribution lies in what is less visible: stronger institutions, more inclusive policymaking, and deeper environmental stewardship. These are the foundations that make development sustainable. They show that development cooperation is not a short-term transaction, but a long-term partnership grounded in trust, knowledge, and shared purpose. 

From Progress to Leadership: Mongolia’s role in a changing world 

Today, Mongolia has reached a new milestone as an upper-middle-income country. This is not only an economic marker, but a testament to decades of resilience, reform, and ambition. 

But this milestone is not an endpoint. It marks the beginning of a new role. 

Mongolia is no longer only a beneficiary of global development cooperation. It is increasingly a contributor, a partner, and a source of solutions. From advancing gender equality and democratic governance to contributing to peacekeeping and championing the priorities of landlocked developing countries, Mongolia is stepping forward with confidence on the global stage. 

In a world searching for credible pathways to inclusive and sustainable development, Mongolia’s experience matters. 

A Partnership Evolving with Ambition 

As Mongolia advances, so too must its partnership with UNDP. 

The traditional model, centered largely on grant assistance, is no longer sufficient to meet the country’s increasingly sophisticated ambitions. Mongolia’s Vision 2050 and national development priorities call for a different kind of partnership: one that is strategic, knowledge-driven, and nationally owned. 

A new phase of partnership is emerging, bringing together strategic national leadership and investment, and global expertise to accelerate development outcomes. It places greater emphasis on policy innovation, institutional capacity, and co-financing arrangements that can scale solutions in areas such as climate action, public services, health, and gender equality. 

Increasingly, this partnership is becoming co-financed and co-created. Government institutions are investing directly in joint initiatives, while UNDP helps mobilize additional resources, expertise, and innovation from across the world. This shift is more sustainable and more empowering, reinforcing national ownership and ensuring that solutions are tailored to Mongolia’s context. 

Looking Ahead: Shaping the Future Together 

The challenges ahead are significant. Climate change is intensifying pressures on ecosystems and livelihoods. Economic diversification remains an urgent priority. Ensuring that growth is inclusive, especially for youth, women, and vulnerable communities, is essential. 

At the same time, Mongolia’s strengths are equally compelling: a young and dynamic population, resilient democratic institutions, vast natural resources, and growing potential in renewable energy and digital transformation. 

The next chapter of Mongolia–UNDP cooperation must match this moment. 

It must support a just and green transition that protects both livelihoods and ecosystems. It must enable future-ready governance systems capable of navigating complexity and uncertainty. It must unlock new opportunities through digital innovation, sustainable finance, and cross-sector partnerships. 

A Partnership for Generations 

Fifty years ago, Mongolia and UNDP came together with a shared vision: to improve people’s lives and build a more prosperous, inclusive, and resilient society. 

Today, that vision endures, but the ambition has grown. 

This is a partnership that has evolved from support to systems, from projects to policies, from assistance to co-creation. In a world of rising uncertainty, Mongolia’s experience reminds us what is possible when cooperation is built on trust and purpose. 

The next 50 years will demand bold choices, innovation, and collective action. 

Together, Mongolia and UNDP are ready not only to meet that challenge, but to lead.

120 foreign investors met with the Prime Minister of Mongolia. What were the initial results? www.open.kg

More than 120 foreign investors and representatives from the banking sector of Mongolia gathered for an extended meeting of the Economic Council led by the Prime Minister, dedicated to the initiative Unlock the Mongolian Economy. It is expected that during the meeting, investment agreements and memorandums of understanding will be signed for a total amount of $545 million. The emergence of initial results is already being noted.

PhillipCapital, managing assets worth $65 billion, will open an office in Mongolia. Founded in Singapore in 1975, PhillipCapital is an international financial group operating in 15 countries and serving over 1.5 million clients.

The decision by PhillipCapital to open an office in Mongolia signals confidence in the country's investment climate. This will allow local businesses to establish connections with international investors, expand their capital markets, and open new financing opportunities. Global investors are showing interest in Mongolia, and it is important to maintain this trust through real projects and openness in the economy.

The Hungarian bank OTP Bank has also expressed its intention to open a branch in Mongolia.

Laszlo Wolf, a member of the board of directors of OTP Bank, noted that if the bank begins operations in Mongolia, it will be able to offer investments to finance large projects as well as develop mortgage lending products. He emphasized that the legal environment for entering the Mongolian market requires reforms, and the Prime Minister is already working on improving the legislative framework. This creates additional opportunities for investment in the country and reflects investors' confidence in the ongoing reforms.

The fact that a major financial institution is considering Mongolia as a promising market indicates a growing confidence in the investment environment. Increased competition in the banking sector should lead to improved service quality and a more diverse financial market.

Luis Santos, founder of the investment company Alpac Capital, reported that Mongolia has already created the necessary conditions to attract Western investors. Previously, the country primarily attracted tourists, but now it is also of interest to financial circles. Santos emphasized that a stable environment and efforts to improve governance contribute to growing investor confidence and the need for more active cooperation with Mongolia.

Mongolia continues to move towards a new stage in attracting international investments and financial flows. The extended session Unlock the Mongolian Economy will continue in Ulaanbaatar on June 29-30.

SIOP Asia in Mongolia Was a Great Success www.oncodaily.com

18th SIOP Asia Congress was held from 25–28 June 2026 in Ulaanbaatar Mongolia.

The Minister of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia Batmunkh Battsetseg hosted the President of SIOP Asia Prof. Gevorg Tamamyan and Chair of the Local Organizing Committee Dr. Tsetsegsaikhan Batmunkh.

Batmunkh Battsetseg, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia, shared a post on Facebook:

“Today, I met with Professor Gevorg Tamamyan, President of the International Society of Paediatric Oncology Asia Continent.

During the meeting, we expressed our gratitude for the collaboration in organizing the 18th Asian Congress in Ulaanbaatar. We also exchanged views on strengthening cooperation in protecting child health, improving early detection, diagnosis, and treatment capacity for cancer, and expanding collaboration within the framework of the Global Initiative Against Childhood Cancer.

He highlighted that more than 300 delegates from 55 countries participated in this congress and expressed his commitment to working closely with our country in all areas related to the fight against cancer, including prevention, treatment, and support services.”

Responding of Facebook, Gevorg Tamamyan, President of SIOP Asia, wrote:

“It was a great honor, Your Excellency, Batmunkh Battsetseg! SIOP Asia in Mongolia was a great success, and I am sure it will serve as a catalyst for even greater developments in Mongolia and across the region. Thank you very much for your wonderful hospitality! I would also like to thank my dear friend Dr. Tsetsegsaikhan Batmunkh and the entire Local Organizing Team for their amazing work, and also Dr. Chinburen Jigjidsuren for his support.

China is lifting a 1,800-kilometer railway over the Gobi Desert that’s rooted in practicality www.vozpopuli.com

China and Mongolia are not building a 1,118-mile elevated railway bridge across the Gobi Desert, at least not according to the latest official public records. What they are building is still important.

It is a new cross-border rail link at Ganqimaodu and Gashuun Sukhait, meant to move coal and mineral cargo through one of Asia’s most difficult freight corridors faster and with less dependence on trucks.

The latest official update says crews completed installation of all 94 T-beams on the Chinese section on June 13, a key step before bridge deck work and track-laying. Once open in 2027, the line is expected to carry about 33 million U.S. tons of cargo each year, making it less of a passenger-train story and more of a supply-chain story.

What crews have finished
The engineering milestone sounds dry until you picture it. CHN Energy said the Chinese section now has all 94 T-beams in place, with the beams measuring roughly 79 feet and 105 feet long and the heaviest weighing about 165 U.S. tons.

These are not small concrete blocks. They are the heavy support pieces that help carry the railway deck, and CHN Energy said crews used high-precision surveying, alignment control, and safety monitoring to place them on bridge piers. One mistake in that kind of work can turn into a very expensive problem.

Built in rough country
The Gobi is a very hostile place to set up a construction site. Official updates describe year-round strong winds, frequent sandstorms, and wind speeds strong enough to complicate high-altitude lifting work. Anyone who has had sand whip across a windshield knows how quickly visibility can go from annoying to downright dangerous.
Now imagine trying to position a beam heavier than many airliners in those conditions. That is why the most impressive part of this project is not just its length, but the precision needed to make a freight railway reliable in a place where wind, sand, and temperature swings are part of daily life. 

Not a 1,118-mile bridge
Some descriptions of the project have made it sound like one giant elevated bridge slicing across the whole desert. The official picture is more specific. Mongolia’s Railway Authority describes the Gashuunsukhait to Gantsmod project as about 20.3 miles long, with main railway sections, bridge structures, border control facilities, and other supporting infrastructure.

Chinese official updates focus on the Chinese section of the Ganqimaodu to Gashuun Sukhait crossing and say it is the second railway link between China and Mongolia after the Erenhot to Zamyn-Uud line, which opened in 1956. So the viral framing may be oversized, but the strategic point is real.

Why the border matters
This crossing sits near Mongolia’s South Gobi mining belt, where coal and copper are not abstract resources on a spreadsheet. They are the cargo that shapes border towns, customs yards, truck traffic, rail schedules, and government revenue.

Reuters reported this month that Mongolia wants two-way trade with China to reach $20 billion this year, after trade fell to $17.7 billion in 2025. China is already the biggest destination for Mongolia’s coal and minerals, and Reuters quoted analyst Xu Tianchen as saying, “Mongolia’s copper output is rising, and China stands ready to take it.”

Aerial view of the elevated railway bridge under construction across the Gobi Desert as part of the China-Mongolia cross-border freight rail project.

An aerial view shows the elevated bridge section of the China-Mongolia railway under construction across the Gobi Desert, where the new freight corridor will streamline coal and mineral transportation.
The minerals behind it
Coal makes up a significant piece of the pie. Reuters reported that Mongolia exported more than 88 million U.S. tons of it last year, almost exclusively to China. The new border railway is meant to make that movement smoother, taking some pressure off roads, trucks, traffic jams, noise, and diesel exhaust at a busy crossing.

One of the country’s best-known coal deposits is Tavantolgoi. The company’s own description estimates the deposit at about 7.2 billion U.S. tons and says its coking coal ranks among the world’s top ten by resource amount.

Copper matters too. Rio Tinto describes Oyu Tolgoi in Mongolia’s South Gobi as one of the world’s largest known copper and gold deposits, and says it is expected to produce about 551,000 U.S. tons of copper per year at peak production. By 2030, Rio Tinto expects it to be the fourth-largest copper mine in the world.

Gauging compatibility
Railways are not only about tracks. They are about whether different systems can actually connect. CHN Energy says the project uses a combined design with both standard-gauge and broad-gauge railways, while Mongolia’s Railway Authority describes dual tracks using roughly 5-foot and 4-foot 8.5-inch gauges.

That detail may sound technical, but it matters. At the end of the day, a border railway works only if cargo can keep moving instead of waiting around for transfers, inspections, or equipment changes.

A smaller bridge with bigger stakes
For China, the railway adds another channel for energy and mineral imports from a neighbor on its northern border. For Mongolia, it promises faster exports and more revenue, but it also deepens reliance on China at a time when the political conversation is centering around being independent.

That’s what looking beyond the  construction photos can reveal. A few dozen concrete beams in the desert can look like a local engineering update, but the cargo they are meant to carry reaches into power plants, steelmaking, electric vehicles, wind turbines, and the wider fight over critical materials.

The trouble is, infrastructure has a way of locking in choices. Once rails, ports, and processing chains point in one direction, trade often follows the same path for decades.

What comes next
CHN Energy says the completed T-beam installation lays the groundwork for bridge deck work and track-laying on the Chinese section. Earlier project updates said the railway is scheduled to be completed and opened to traffic in 2027.

So no, the confirmed project is not a jaw-dropping 1,118-mile bridge defying nature across the whole Gobi. It is something more practical and, in some ways, more impressive.

The official statement was published on CHN Energy.

BY Adrián Villellas
Adrián Villellas is a computer engineer and entrepreneur in digital marketing and advertising technology. He has led projects in data analysis, sustainable advertising, and new audience solutions. He also collaborates on scientific initiatives related to astronomy and space observation. He publishes in scientific, technological, and environmental media, where he brings complex topics and innovative advances to a wide audience.

Hungarian bank expresses interest in launching branch in Mongolia www.xinhuanet.com

 Hungary's OTP Bank has expressed interest in establishing a branch in Mongolia, the Mongolian government's press office announced on Monday.

OTP Bank has officially submitted a letter of intent to Mongolian Prime Minister Nyam-Osor Uchral regarding the establishment of a branch in Mongolia, the statement said.

The interest shown by one of the world's leading financial institutions reflects growing international confidence in Mongolia's investment climate and its long-term market potential, it said.

Mongolia currently has no branches of foreign commercial banks operating in the country.

The potential entry of a foreign bank is widely expected to increase competition in the banking sector, help lower lending interest rates, expand access to financial resources, and attract greater foreign investment.

Mongolia: Geopolitics of Balancing www.hungarianconservative.com

Few countries in the world face a geopolitical predicament as unique as Mongolia. Occupying a vast territory of more than 1.5 million square kilometres but home to only around 3.5 million inhabitants, Mongolia is wedged between two great powers: Russia to the north and China to the south. This geographical reality has shaped Mongolian foreign policy for centuries and continues to determine the country’s strategic choices today. Since the democratic transition of the early 1990s, Mongolia has sought to preserve its sovereignty through a delicate balancing act between its two neighbours while simultaneously cultivating ties with distant partners under its famous ‘Third Neighbour Policy’.

The historical memory of the Mongol Empire remains central to Mongolia’s national identity. In the 13th century, the empire established by Genghis Khan and his descendants stretched from the Eastern border of the Kingdom of Hungary to the Pacific Ocean, making it the largest contiguous land empire in history. Its capital, Karakorum, located in the Orkhon Valley, in the centre of contemporary Mongolia, served as a cosmopolitan centre attracting people, merchants and diplomats from across Eurasia. It was famous for its religious tolerance, allowing the erection of places of worship for Buddhists, Christians, and Muslims, beyond the local cults of the Mongols.

The decline and finally the dissolution of the empire transformed Mongolia from the centre of power into a peripheral region caught between larger states in the upcoming centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Qing dynasty gradually incorporated the Mongol territories into its empire. Following the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Outer Mongolia declared independence, although its status remained contested for decades.

After that, Russia and, later on, the Soviet Union emerged as Mongolia’s principal protector during the 20th century. The Mongolian People’s Republic became one of Moscow’s closest allies, serving as a strategic buffer between the USSR and China. Following the collapse of communism, Mongolia embarked on a peaceful democratic transition in 1990 and adopted a multi-party political system and market economy. Yet while the political system changed dramatically, geography remained unchanged.

‘The decline and finally the dissolution of the empire transformed Mongolia from the centre of power into a peripheral region caught between larger states’

Mongolia’s geopolitical dilemma is simple but profound. To the south lies China, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion. To the north lies Russia, with approximately 140 million inhabitants. Mongolia’s population is tiny in comparison, and its economy remains heavily dependent on trade with its neighbours.

The country’s economy is built largely on mineral exports. Coal, copper, gold and rare earth elements constitute the backbone of Mongolian exports. The giant Oyu Tolgoi copper mine, operated by the mining company Rio Tinto, has become one of the world’s most significant mining projects. Coal exports from the Tavan Tolgoi deposits similarly provide substantial state revenue.

This resource-based economic model has reinforced Mongolia’s dependence on China. In recent years, Mongolia’s foreign trade reached approximately USD 25 billion, with China accounting for more than 90 per cent of Mongolian exports and around 40 per cent of imports—a rare exception in which China runs a trade deficit.

China’s importance stems not only from its enormous market but also from geography. Most Mongolian coal and copper exports travel south across the border to Chinese industrial centres. Beijing has invested heavily in border infrastructure, rail links and logistics facilities, making itself indispensable to Mongolia’s export economy. Not surprisingly, it launched the China–Mongolia–Russia Corridor (CMRC) as part of the Belt and Road Initiative to strengthen ties and facilitate transport in the region.

Russia, meanwhile, remains crucial in a different way. Although trade volumes are considerably smaller than with China, Mongolia depends heavily on Russian fuel and energy supplies. Much of Mongolia’s petroleum products originate in Russia, creating a strategic vulnerability that became especially apparent after the outbreak of the Russo–Ukraine war. Relations with Russia remain rooted in historical memory. Russian and Soviet assistance was instrumental in preserving Mongolian independence during the 20th century, and many Mongolians continue to view Russia favourably. At the same time, Mongolia has been careful not to become politically subordinate to Moscow. The Russian invasion of Ukraine placed Ulaanbaatar in a particularly uncomfortable position. Mongolia avoided openly condemning Russia but also refrained from endorsing the invasion. It consistently attempted to maintain neutrality while preserving relations with Western partners.

Consequently, Mongolia faces the challenge of avoiding excessive dependence on either neighbour. Economic logic pulls it towards China, while historical ties and energy dependence connect it to Russia. Since the early 1990s, Mongolian governments have pursued a strategy of ‘equidistance’ between Moscow and Beijing. This balancing act was visible in Mongolia’s diplomatic activity during the past decade. The country has simultaneously welcomed Chinese investment, maintained defence ties with Russia and expanded cooperation with Western democracies.

Recognizing the limitations imposed by geography, Mongolia developed its ‘Third Neighbour’ policy after the democratic transition. The concept emerged in the early 1990s and refers to building strong partnerships with countries beyond Russia and China. The policy seeks to diversify Mongolia’s diplomatic, economic and security relationships by engaging with the United States, Japan, South Korea, India, the European Union, Canada and Australia. The underlying objective is straightforward: the broader Mongolia’s international network, the less vulnerable it becomes to pressure from its two immediate neighbours.

Among Mongolia’s most important third neighbours is Japan, one of the country’s largest providers of development assistance. South Korea has become an increasingly important economic partner, while the United States regularly conducts military cooperation and joint exercises with Mongolian forces.

‘The broader Mongolia’s international network, the less vulnerable it becomes to pressure from its two immediate neighbours’

Recent years have produced several notable examples of the policy in action. Mongolia has strengthened cooperation with France in uranium mining and intensified engagement with the European Union and other member states, such as Hungary, as well as Indo-Pacific partners, positioning itself as a democratic actor in a region increasingly marked by geopolitical competition.

Although Mongolia is not a Turkic state, it maintains increasingly close relations with the Turkic countries of Central Asia and Türkiye. Historical connections between Turkic and Mongolic peoples run deep. The Eurasian steppe has long served as a zone of interaction among nomadic civilizations. Modern Mongolia has therefore sought to strengthen ties with Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Türkiye. Kazakhstan is particularly important because it hosts a large ethnic Kazakh population in western Mongolia.

In March 2025, the Organization of Turkic States’ Secretary-General made an official working visit to Ulaanbaatar—the first in the organization’s history. The meetings held in the Mongolian capital explored potential cooperation in different fields, ranging from energy to tourism.

Despite the considerable geographical distance, relations between Mongolia and Hungary are exceptionally friendly. The two countries established diplomatic relations on 28 April 1950, making 2025 the 75th anniversary of ties that were maintained and gradually deepened.

Hungary’s historical and scholarly interest in the Eurasian steppe has contributed to sustained engagement with Mongolia. Academic cooperation is particularly strong, with Hungarian researchers making important contributions to Mongolian and Inner Asian studies.

Educational relations have become one of the pillars of bilateral cooperation. Through the Stipendium Hungaricum scholarship programme, approximately 200 Mongolian students are able to study at Hungarian universities each year. These students represent an important bridge between the two societies and contribute to the long-term development of bilateral relations.

Labour mobility has emerged as another growing area of cooperation. In recent years, several thousand Mongolian guest workers have arrived in Hungary, helping to address labour shortages in certain sectors of the Hungarian economy. This trend has added a practical economic dimension to the traditionally cordial political relationship.

For Hungary, Mongolia also represents a valuable partner in Asia and an example of a successful democratic transition in the post-socialist world. For Mongolia, Hungary serves as a gateway to Europe and an important educational and cultural partner within the European Union.

Mongolia’s foreign policy is fundamentally shaped by geography. Situated between Russia and China, it cannot escape the influence of either neighbour. Yet rather than accepting dependency, Mongolia has developed a sophisticated strategy of balancing. It maintains pragmatic relations with both Moscow and Beijing while simultaneously cultivating a wide network of partners through its Third Neighbour policy.

The country’s challenge in the coming decades will be to preserve this strategic autonomy amid intensifying great-power competition. As global demand for critical minerals increases and geopolitical rivalries deepen across Eurasia, Mongolia’s importance is likely to grow. The success of its balancing strategy may therefore become one of the most interesting geopolitical stories of contemporary Asia.