With over 1000 licenses issued across the country, a diverse range of mineral extraction operations are transforming Mongolia’s rural cultural landscape. The Gobi region is crowded with both mega mines and smaller-scale operations. The Gobi also has excellent conditions for renewable energy and is poised to be a site for significant investment in this industry. Solar and wind farms are already starting to pop up in Omnogobi and Dornogovi provinces reflecting Mongolia’s commitment to reduce its reliance on coal power under the State Policy on Energy 2015-2030.

An employee looks at the Oyu Tolgoi mine in Mongolia's South Gobi region

Yet in the face of these major investments and developments, discussions of traditional mobile pastoralist land tenure rights have been muted. While the Mongolian government has some legal provisions to protect the environment, such as the 2012 Law on Environmental Impact Assessment, it lacks robust policy on resettlement and social safeguarding and adequate protections against forced eviction.

To address this regulatory gap, the ESRC-GCRF funded (2018-2021) Gobi Framework project drafted national guidelines for the Social Impact Assessment as part of a Government of Mongolia Working Group initiative. The Working Group was established in 2020 to study and develop proposals on the impact of mining, including existing practices of resettlement and compensation.

Since the mid-1990s, the crisis of land tenure rights for mobile pastoralists has been quietly unfolding across the country. Rural pastureland is state property and industrial licensing processes — for both mineral extraction and renewable energy projects like wind and solar — override herders’ traditional rights to mobile land use. The territory of Dalanjargalan county in Dornogovi province is a case in point, with two-thirds of the territory taken for mining.

Climate change impacts the Mongolian drylands in complex ways. But herder vulnerabilities also stem from political and economic policies, which include a lack of government capacity, informalisation of the economy, legal complexity and a focus on urban-based service provision and free market policies, catering to settled and urbanised livelihoods.

The rapid scaling up of open-pit mining has fractured and physically destroyed pasturelands. Mining overburden, heavy truck traffic, dust, waste and herder concerns on the availability of safe potable water make rural areas increasingly risky for the well-being of livestock.

The transformative effects of open pit mining intersect with climate change impacts, putting pressure on the delicate and variable steppe and Gobi ecosystems. The industry is only loosely regulated, and enforcement is challenging. The vast majority of mines are limited only by national laws and regulations. They are not required to abide by international standards such as the International Finance Corporation Performance Standards, as their financing is from private sources.

While mining laws in Mongolia require an Environmental Impact Assessment process, they lack attention to social impacts and international standards for resettlement of traditional mobile pastoralist herders. As herders are not considered to be Indigenous by the Mongolian government, processes of free, prior and informed consent are not a legal requirement. A regular review of human rights in Mongolia by a UN Special Rapporteur in 2019 and by the UN Human Rights Council in 2020 identified concerns regarding the negative impacts from mining projects on the rights of herders.

International resettlement and livelihood restoration standards do not feature in the Mongolian Minerals Law. Article 41 of the law makes licence holders liable to compensate for damage they cause. But companies tend to define project-affected peoples as those who have a formally registered winter camp within a fixed distance from a piece of infrastructure or license area. In some cases, registered spring camps are also included. This excludes many herders who do not have formally registered winter camps but are still legitimate occupiers based on customary land use practices and commonly held beliefs.

This overly simplified mapping practice misrepresents the dynamic mobile livelihoods of herders as fixed points occupying a small plot of land. It also leaves out many herders who may use a designated license area seasonally. By not formally accounting for loss of pastureland or other natural resources, herder livelihoods are put at risk.

Our research in the Gobi Framework project revealed that the failure to acknowledge herders outside of the narrow lens of registered winter camp households is sowing the seeds of community conflict. Conflict is frequent between displaced and non-displaced herders, with displaced herders being shunned as ‘sell-outs’ and chased away by new host communities. In many cases, the households formally designated by companies as ‘project-affected people’ were rejected and ostracised by herders from the same district. Their ability to negotiate for pasture access in other areas is limited due to this social rejection.

For project-affected people, some mining companies provide monetary compensation while others provide in-kind goods for herders who lose their winter campsites located in license areas. Amounts of compensation vary widely and arrangements are often protected by nondisclosure agreements. In other cases, herders report being threatened with forced eviction by companies.

The land dispossession facing Mongolia’s traditional mobile pastoralists and the contribution of mining-induced displacement on processes of urbanisation should be given urgent attention in this era of climate change and its consequential risks to rural livelihoods.

Ariell Ahearn is a lecturer in human geography at the School of Geography and the Environment at the University of Oxford.

On February 10, the working group in charge of accelerating construction works at Khushig Valley held a regular meeting. Led by the Deputy Prime Minister, the working group was put in charge of the works in the framework of the Government’s policy on decentralizing Ulaanbaatar city, diversifying the economy, and developing a new region for industry and trade, science and technology, bank and finances, university and college complexes, and tourism as well as transport and logistics.

During the meeting, Minister of Construction and Urban Development B.Munkhbaatar introduced plans for resolving issues relating to autoroads, infrastructure, electricity and heating, water supply, flood protection, and waste management in connection with the task given by the Prime Minister to launch construction works at Khushig Valley from April 1.

Deputy Prime Minister S.Amarsaikhan said, “It is necessary to draft an even more detailed plan for the construction works to be carried out in Khushig Valley and ensure its implementation. The participation of domestic and foreign organizations that have prior experience in the development of urban areas and free zones is also important. By making estimates about future demands, plans for transportation such as railroads and LRT should have correlation with the projects.” He then tasked the Minister to include the construction projects for large-scale healthcare facilities such as the National Center for Communicable Diseases and the National Cancer Center in the general plan for Khushig Valley by having the blueprints developed on par with international standards.

A report on 2021 progress of the project to construct a natural gas pipeline from Russia to China through the Mongolian territory was introduced to Deputy Prime Minister S.Amarsaikhan by the project leader L.Amarsanaa and CEO of the special-purpose company Gazoprovod Soyuz Vostok Aseev Evgeny Nikolaevich.

Within the framework of the project, three major works, which were planned for last year, have been fulfilled. In particular, the gas pipeline route has been made clear, the development of feasibility study has been complete as well as necessary permits have been issued to the Special Purpose Company, thus it is now ready for the next phase. This year, the project plans to begin research in engineering geodesy, engineering ecology and engineering archeology. Preparations have been ensured to begin this work in May and are scheduled to be completed by November 30 this year.

During the meeting, Deputy Prime Minister S.Amarsaikhan said that the government of Mongolia is satisfied with the results of the works, while expressing he would work to resolve any problems and challenges and continue the project without delay.

Aseev Yevgeny Nikolayevich said, “If we work as fast as last year, we can achieve better results this year" and thanked the Government of Mongolia for supporting the project.

We asked the Governor of the Capital City and the Mayor of Ulaanbaatar D. Sumiyabazar to elaborate on the issues and solutions that were discussed during Prime Minister L. Oyun-Erdene’s working visit to the People’s Republic of China.

-During the Prime Minister’s visit to the People’s Republic of China, what issues relating to Ulaanbaatar city were raised, and what conclusions were made?

-Ulaanbaatar city, home to nearly half of the country’s total population, is a big social and economic complex. So indeed, there is a multitude of problems that need to be resolved. During times of budgetary and financial difficulties, effective political decisions will drive development. The Prime Minister’s official working visit to PRC lasted for 5 days. The inclusion of city officials in the Prime Minister’s delegation is a sign that the Government of Mongolia is sincere in attaching great importance to Ulaanbaatar city, which makes up 50% of the total population.

Ulaanbaatar's congestion is the most important issue that we are facing today. Therefore, in order to solve this problem the Prime Minister is paying close attention by establishing national committees, allocating MNT 420 billion to the capital city’s budget, thus supporting investment opportunities. Parliament has also supported Ulaanbaatar’s legal environment. Both Parliament and the Government expressing their utmost support for the capital city is an event on an international level. Even though the PRC conducted the Olympics during the pandemic, it was also a great opportunity for us as various Presidents, Prime Ministers, and officials from around the world gathered in one place. Our Prime Minister has seized this opportunity efficiently with good team coordination, thus achieving beneficial results. During this visit, two major projects from Ulaanbaatar city were discussed. One of the projects aims to implement a new form of public transportation in the city in which we have planned to introduce an elevated light rail train or LRT system.

The Chinese side, including the National Development and Reform Commission, has expressed full support for the construction of a 50-kilometer-long three-line elevated mass transit project within five years.

Ulaanbaatar has only three emergency exits. In the event of an earthquake or other natural disasters, there is a danger that Ulaanbaatar residents will be stuck at the city border or on the streets. Therefore, we are planning to build a ring-shaped highway as a solution to protect the lives, well-being, and property of our citizens. The construction of a two-way highway with 3 lanes on each side was discussed during the visit.

What should we prioritize in order to ignite and keep the major projects going?

-A lot of it depends on us. Firstly, we must keep our word. Secondly, we have to have discipline. Thirdly, we must acknowledge the concept of mutually beneficial cooperation. In every interaction whether in business or a relationship, the interests of both parties play an inevitable role.

Also, we must eliminate complex bureaucratic challenges and increase productivity. The only way we move forward is by getting rid of unnecessary government bureaucracy and corruption. The Prime Minister's New Revival policy will focus on improving the government’s productivity and supporting the private sector. Since this plan was talked about for many years without any progress, people may be skeptical. But we must do it. Implying that the government should only make the key arrangements and not participate in smaller matters. As a result, jobs will be created with the duty and participation of many companies, and the economic opportunities of the private sector will expand.

-Citizens criticize the fact that many projects and programs are initiated to reduce congestion in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar, but they soon disappear. You said, one of the issues discussed during the visit was the light train. How realistic is the project to build a 50-kilometer-long light rail line in three directions in the span of five years?

-We have been talking about the planned projects and activities to be implemented in Ulaanbaatar for many years. During E. Bat-Uul's administration, the work went well for a while, but they probably needed a more organized and coordinated approach. In other words, the Parliament and the Government did not provide enough support for them to succeed. However, it is advantageous for us today as this problem is no longer present with the MPP in leadership. Especially now, with Parliament and the Government showing full support in dealing with Ulaanbaatar’s issues. So in order to fulfill our promise and receive the financial support needed, in approaching any project and programs, we must make sure to implement the feasibility report accurately. I would like to highlight a few things that have been done over the past year. The Parliament has provided core support in creating a better legal system and helped take a fundamental step towards making Ulaanbaatar an independent economy. Regarding the budget and finance, the Prime Minister and the Minister of Finance have decided to allocate 420 billion MNT t to the city. These domestic arrangements are sure to attract large foreign organizations. In particular, financial institutions around the world are offering direct loans to Ulaanbaatar. All this attributes to setting our core and legal values properly. During the visit to China, we proposed to organize our projects and programs in the form of direct investment and the form of international partnerships to jointly build the projects. By doing so, we are confident that we will be able to reduce congestion as promised to our citizens and implement the decentralization projects and programs on time.

The first test of a light-rail train will be conducted in 2024. And also, the construction of a highway will be initiated. Feasibility study and blueprints of the Tuul highway have been completed, which is one of the projects that are ready for implementation. So, we have officially proposed to China to implement these two projects within five years. The relevant parties are currently in the negotiation stage. I believe we can complete these projects.

UB CITY TRAINING, RESEARCH, AND PUBLIC RELATIONS AUTHORITY

Since winning the Operalia Competition in 2012 and taking home the audience prize at the Cardiff Singer of the World competition in 2015, Mongolian singer E.Amartuvshin has become one of the most sought-after baritones in the world.

He has steadily made major debuts and began performing at some of the most important houses in the world including the Royal Opera and Wiener Staatsoper where he debuted in 2021. He has also become a proponent of the Verdi canon making the title role of “Nabucco” one of his signature roles.

He has also performed “Aida,” “La Traviata,” “Ernani,” “Rigoletto,” and “La Forza del Destino.”

Now he adds another Verdi role to his growing repertoire. This week he sings the role of Miller in “Luisa Miller” at the Teatro dell’Opera di Roma, where he is also making his house debut. E.Amartuvshin has been praised by critics for “his imposing presence with a voice to match” and for having “the voice of a true Verdian baritone.”

Audiences around Italy have already gotten to know his work from Verona to Palermo to Coccia to Genova, and now he will get to show his mastery of the repertoire in the country’s capital.

Further performances this season for the baritone include “La Gioconda” in Orange, “Rigoletto” at the Teatro alla Scala and Genova and Aida in Hamburg, among others.

Rio Tinto Group’s hold on the title of world No. 1 iron ore producer is safe — at least for another quarter.

Vale SA was expected to overtake its main rival in the fourth quarter, but reported a disappointing 82.5 million metric tons of the steel-making ingredient after heavy rains restricted operations in northern Brazil. That compares with 84.1 million tons for Rio Tinto.

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Vale lost the title of top supplier in the wake of a tailings dam disaster three years ago. After focusing on safety, it has slowly brought back production while Rio Tinto has suffered from its own rain disruptions and the fallout from a cultural heritage fiasco.

Now the two firms are level pegging, even delivering identical 2022 guidance of 320-335 million tons, although Rio Tinto’s is for shipments and Vale’s is for production. In Thursday’s report, Vale kept its 2022 projection despite more rain interruptions last month.

Bragging rights aside, the Rio de Janeiro-based company continues to bang the drum of value over volume, wary of flooding a market that’s still recovering from a rout in the second half of last year after China limited steel output to contain pollution and power use. Bloomberg Intelligence sees global supply contracting this year.

Iron ore bulls may find some support in Vale’s quarterly result, which trailed the 85.6 million-ton average estimate as well as the company’s third quarter and the year-ago result.

Vale is also one of the world’s biggest nickel producers and a significant copper supplier. Production of those two metals fell 5.5% and 17%, respectively, from a year ago, although nickel output surged 59% from the strike-affected previous quarter.

At the regular meeting of the Cabinet today on February 9, Minister of Finance and Acting Minister of Economic Development B.Javkhlan made a presentation on the Prime Minister’s visit to the People’s Republic of China, issues concerning border checkpoints that were discussed in its framework, and its current state.

“During the visit, additional meetings were organized alongside those that were scheduled. This could be considered as a positive outcome of the visit. As instructed by the Prime Minister, a working meeting was held with the Chinese National Development and Reform Commission’s Deputy Chairman in charge of matters relating to Mongolia. At the meeting, we discussed five projects that are of high economic importance.

The issue concerning the expansion of operations at border checkpoints such as Gashuunsukhait - Gantsmod and Shiveekhuren - Sekhee by connecting them by rail, and the railway border crossing points were finalized. We have now entered the next stage of matters, which is the construction of a freight terminal in order to utilize the connection by rail. As the feasibility study carried out by the Mongolian side for the terminal has been handed over to the side of China, meetings that were initially scheduled for late February and early March are planned to be organized on February 15,” said Minister B.Javkhlan.

He also highlighted that the Prime Minister has tasked the corresponding officials to complete the works to renew border checkpoints by the end of the year during the Cabinet meeting.

The number of newly detected COVID-19 cases and the positive rate in PCR test results decreased by 56 and 30 percent respectively compared to the previous week, reported Deputy Prime Minister S.Amarsaikhan during today’s cabinet meeting.

Moreover, 31 percent of the total population and 52 percent of the target population have received the 3rd or booster shot of the COVID-19 vaccine.

Considering the facts that the vaccination rate has reached 50 percent among the target population and COVID-19 infection has relatively decreased, the Cabinet today made a decision to have all types of educational institutes resume in-person classes starting from February 14.